homepage
Open menu
Go one level top
  • Train and Certify
    Train and Certify

    Immediately apply the skills and techniques learned in SANS courses, ranges, and summits

    • Overview
    • Courses
      • Overview
      • Full Course List
      • By Focus Areas
        • Cloud Security
        • Cyber Defense
        • Cybersecurity and IT Essentials
        • DFIR
        • Industrial Control Systems
        • Offensive Operations
        • Management, Legal, and Audit
      • By Skill Levels
        • New to Cyber
        • Essentials
        • Advanced
        • Expert
      • Training Formats
        • OnDemand
        • In-Person
        • Live Online
      • Course Demos
    • Training Roadmaps
      • Skills Roadmap
      • Focus Area Job Roles
        • Cyber Defence Job Roles
        • Offensive Operations Job Roles
        • DFIR Job Roles
        • Cloud Job Roles
        • ICS Job Roles
        • Leadership Job Roles
      • NICE Framework
        • Security Provisionals
        • Operate and Maintain
        • Oversee and Govern
        • Protect and Defend
        • Analyze
        • Collect and Operate
        • Investigate
        • Industrial Control Systems
      • European Skills Framework
    • GIAC Certifications
    • Training Events & Summits
      • Events Overview
      • Event Locations
        • Asia
        • Australia & New Zealand
        • Latin America
        • Mainland Europe
        • Middle East & Africa
        • Scandinavia
        • United Kingdom & Ireland
        • United States & Canada
      • Summits
    • OnDemand
    • Get Started in Cyber
      • Overview
      • Degree and Certificate Programs
      • Scholarships
    • Cyber Ranges
  • Manage Your Team
    Manage Your Team

    Build a world-class cyber team with our workforce development programs

    • Overview
    • Why Work with SANS
    • Group Purchasing
    • Build Your Team
      • Team Development
      • Assessments
      • Private Training
      • Hire Cyber Professionals
      • By Industry
        • Health Care
        • Industrial Control Systems Security
        • Military
    • Leadership Training
  • Security Awareness
    Security Awareness

    Increase your staff’s cyber awareness, help them change their behaviors, and reduce your organizational risk

    • Overview
    • Products & Services
      • Security Awareness Training
        • EndUser Training
        • Phishing Platform
      • Specialized
        • Developer Training
        • ICS Engineer Training
        • NERC CIP Training
        • IT Administrator
      • Risk Assessments
        • Knowledge Assessment
        • Culture Assessment
        • Behavioral Risk Assessment
    • OUCH! Newsletter
    • Career Development
      • Overview
      • Training & Courses
      • Professional Credential
    • Blog
    • Partners
    • Reports & Case Studies
  • Resources
    Resources

    Enhance your skills with access to thousands of free resources, 150+ instructor-developed tools, and the latest cybersecurity news and analysis

    • Overview
    • Webcasts
    • Free Cybersecurity Events
      • Free Events Overview
      • Summits
      • Solutions Forums
      • Community Nights
    • Content
      • Newsletters
        • NewsBites
        • @RISK
        • OUCH! Newsletter
      • Blog
      • Podcasts
      • Summit Presentations
      • Posters & Cheat Sheets
    • Research
      • White Papers
      • Security Policies
    • Tools
    • Focus Areas
      • Cyber Defense
      • Cloud Security
      • Digital Forensics & Incident Response
      • Industrial Control Systems
      • Cyber Security Leadership
      • Offensive Operations
  • Get Involved
    Get Involved

    Help keep the cyber community one step ahead of threats. Join the SANS community or begin your journey of becoming a SANS Certified Instructor today.

    • Overview
    • Join the Community
    • Work Study
    • Teach for SANS
    • CISO Network
    • Partnerships
    • Sponsorship Opportunities
  • About
    About

    Learn more about how SANS empowers and educates current and future cybersecurity practitioners with knowledge and skills

    • SANS
      • Overview
      • Our Founder
      • Awards
    • Instructors
      • Our Instructors
      • Full Instructor List
    • Mission
      • Our Mission
      • Diversity
      • Scholarships
    • Contact
      • Contact Customer Service
      • Contact Sales
      • Press & Media Enquiries
    • Frequent Asked Questions
    • Customer Reviews
    • Press
    • Careers
  • Contact Sales
  • SANS Sites
    • GIAC Security Certifications
    • Internet Storm Center
    • SANS Technology Institute
    • Security Awareness Training
  • Search
  • Log In
  • Join
    • Account Dashboard
    • Log Out
  1. Home >
  2. Blog >
  3. Atemporal time line analysis in digital forensics
Dave Hull

Atemporal time line analysis in digital forensics

October 24, 2011

As incident responders we often find that attackers compromise one host in a network and then pivot to others. In digital forensic investigations involving intrusions, we can do our own pivoting from one piece of evidence to another. On October 19th, I had the good fortune to speak at SECTor about one method of doing this via "atemporal" time line analysis. A version of the slides is available online, though most of the talk was live demo so I recommend checking out the recorded version of the presentation. This post touches on some of the ideas from that talk.

In Q1 of 2011, I responded to an intrusion in a Fortune 10K corporation. The intrusion was discovered by an internal team performing daily log review (yes Josh Corman, there are corporations discovering intrusions daily thanks to log review). In this case, the system in question was attempting to connect to an IRC server every two seconds.

In breach investigations, one common objective is to find the attacker's code. Once you've located the attacker's code, you can reverse it, determine its capabilities, its command and control channels, persistence mechanisms and so on. This information can help you find similarly compromised hosts in your environment.

After evidence acquisition, a file system time line was created using fls and mactime. The time line was over 600K lines and not having a good grasp of when the breach occurred, I decided to begin at the end of the time line and work backwards. Here's what I saw:

<p>2011 03 18 Fri 14:43:02|80528|.a..|r/rrw-r-r-|0|0|708471|/etc/ld.so.cache
2011 03 18 Fri 14:43:02|47|mac.|r/rrw-r-r-|0|0|709666|/etc/.services.swpx (deleted-realloc)
2011 03 18 Fri 14:43:02|47|mac.|r/rrw-r-r-|0|0|709666|/etc/mtab
2011 03 18 Fri 14:43:02|47|mac.|r/rrw-r-r-|0|0|709666|/etc/mtab.tmp (deleted-realloc)
2011 03 18 Fri 14:43:02|47|mac.|r/rrw-r-r-|0|0|709666|/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/.ifcfg-eth1.swpx (deleted-realloc)
2011 03 18 Fri 14:43:02|47|mac.|r/rrw-r-r-|0|0|709666|/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth1~ (deleted-realloc)
2011 03 18 Fri 14:43:02|0|mac.|-/rrw-r-r-|0|0|709692|/$OrphanFiles/OrphanFile-709692 (deleted)
2011 04 15 Fri 19:23:00|388262|m...|r/rrwxr-xr-x|1000|100|4572390|/usr/lib/popauth
2011 04 15 Fri 19:23:00|1092|m...|r/rrwxr-xr-x|1000|100|4572391|/usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
2011 04 15 Fri 19:23:00|351|m...|r/rrwxr-xr-x|1000|100|4572392|/etc/cron.daily/dnsquery</p>

Notice anything interesting? 

If you're thinking "dsniff", yes, that is noteworthy, but take another look, focus on the dates.

Recall that this breach investigation occurred during the first quarter of 2011. How are there three files on this system that have modification times from Q2? Maybe we're dealing with the world's worst hacker.

You can check out the video of the talk to see the details on two of the three files. Suffice to say, "dnsquery "was a script run by cron every day, it called "popauth". A quick look at "popauth" with strings showed that it contained some common IRC commands as well as references to dsniff. One might be tempted to remove "popauth", "dsniff" and the "dnsquery" script and put the system back into production, after all, we know we are looking for an ircbot. That would have been a mistake in this case.

Now that we had located some attacker code through traditional time line analysis, how can we pivot from this information we know to something we don't know, using atemporal analysis? To start, I grepped through the time line file for the suspect file names and only the elements from the time line that I wanted to focus on. Here's the command and the results:

<p>egrep "popauth|dsniff|dnsquery" slash.timeline.csv | awk -F"|" '{print $7, $3, $NF}' | sort -g
670500 .a.. /usr/lib/popauth.#prelink#.Ah5LTd (deleted)
670500 .a.. /usr/lib/popauth.#prelink#.yuQfuE (deleted)
670500 m.c. /usr/lib/popauth.#prelink#.Ah5LTd (deleted)
670500 m.c. /usr/lib/popauth.#prelink#.yuQfuE (deleted)
4572390 .a.. /usr/lib/popauth
4572390 ..c. /usr/lib/popauth
4572390 m... /usr/lib/popauth
4572391 .a.. /usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
4572391 ..c. /usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
4572391 m... /usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
4572392 .a.. /etc/cron.daily/dnsquery
4572392 ..c. /etc/cron.daily/dnsquery
4572392 m... /etc/cron.daily/dnsquery</p>

So what are these numbers at the start of each line? They are metadata addresses, or inodes in Ext2/3/4 file systems. NTFS file systems have something similar commonly referred to as NTFS entries, though Microsoft calls them something more formal sounding. In the industry, we typically refer to them as inodes, whether we're discussing NTFS or Ext2/3/4 file systems.

So inodes are a metadata structure akin to a card (dating myself here) from a library's card catalog. They contain information about the files in the same way that those cards used to contain author, title, number of pages, location in the library, etc., but inodes contain owner, group, location on disk, size of file, etc. In a library these cards are arranged alphabetically either by title, author or subject. In a file system, they are simply first come, first serve and they are numbered sequentially. In NTFS inode 0 always points to the $MFT. In Ext2/3/4 inode 2 is the root (/) directory.

Given that these inodes are assigned sequentially, if new files are written to disk, the inodes that are assigned to them are likely to be sequential or close to sequential, assuming a sequential run of inodes is available. I need to hire a good illustrator to animate this concept.

Think of it this way, as files are deleted from the system, their inodes are marked as unallocated and are available for reuse. If there are no unallocated inodes, new ones will be assigned beginning with the current maximum inode value plus one and so on.

So, how do we use this information to find attacker code? By grepping through the time line for inode values that are similar to those we already know about. Take a look:

<p>awk -F"|" '{print $7, $3, $NF}' slash.timeline.csv | egrep "^670(49|50)|^45723(8|9)" | grep -v Orpha | grep -v delete | sort -g
670492 .a.. /usr/sbin/sshd
670492 ..c. /usr/sbin/sshd
670492 m... /usr/sbin/sshd
670494 .a.. /usr/lib/httpd.log
670494 m.c. /usr/lib/httpd.log
670495 mac. /usr/include/shup.h
670496 .a.. /usr/include/glob2.h
670496 m.c. /usr/include/glob2.h
670497 .a.. /usr/bin/zap
670497 m.c. /usr/bin/zap
670498 .a.. /usr/bin/ssh
670498 ..c. /usr/bin/ssh
670498 m... /usr/bin/ssh
670499 .a.. /usr/bin/zmuie
670499 ..c. /usr/bin/zmuie
670499 m... /usr/bin/zmuie
4572390 .a.. /usr/lib/popauth
4572390 ..c. /usr/lib/popauth
4572390 m... /usr/lib/popauth
4572391 .a.. /usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
4572391 ..c. /usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
4572391 m... /usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
4572392 .a.. /etc/cron.daily/dnsquery
4572392 ..c. /etc/cron.daily/dnsquery
4572392 m... /etc/cron.daily/dnsquery</p>

Every file in the list above was attacker code and we found them simply by taking a known piece of information and pivoting on it. If we'd relied only on temporal aspects of the time line, we could have missed these files. Why didn't these files show up at the end of our time line like the other three? Here's the same data, but with time stamps put back in:

<p>awk -F"|" '{print $7, $1, $3, $NF}' slash.timeline.csv | egrep "^670(49|50)|^45723(8|9)" | grep -v Orpha | grep -v delete | sort -g
670492 2007 08 08 Wed 08:47:33 m... /usr/sbin/sshd
670492 2011 01 27 Thu 03:02:32 ..c. /usr/sbin/sshd
670492 2011 03 05 Sat 03:02:20 .a.. /usr/sbin/sshd
670493 2011 01 22 Sat 05:37:22 mac. /usr/share/sshd.sync
670494 2011 03 18 Fri 03:02:05 m.c. /usr/lib/httpd.log
670494 2011 03 18 Fri 12:53:36 .a.. /usr/lib/httpd.log
670495 2011 01 22 Sat 05:37:22 mac. /usr/include/shup.h
670496 2011 02 01 Tue 12:03:09 .a.. /usr/include/glob2.h
670496 2011 03 18 Fri 12:46:00 m.c. /usr/include/glob2.h
670497 2011 01 22 Sat 05:37:22 m.c. /usr/bin/zap
670497 2011 03 05 Sat 03:02:35 .a.. /usr/bin/zap
670498 2011 01 22 Sat 05:37:22 m... /usr/bin/ssh
670498 2011 01 27 Thu 03:02:32 ..c. /usr/bin/ssh
670498 2011 03 18 Fri 14:11:26 .a.. /usr/bin/ssh
670499 2007 07 30 Mon 10:19:17 m... /usr/bin/zmuie
670499 2011 01 27 Thu 03:02:32 ..c. /usr/bin/zmuie
670499 2011 03 05 Sat 03:02:13 .a.. /usr/bin/zmuie
4572390 2011 01 22 Sat 05:37:22 ..c. /usr/lib/popauth
4572390 2011 03 18 Fri 03:02:05 .a.. /usr/lib/popauth
4572390 2011 04 15 Fri 19:23:00 m... /usr/lib/popauth
4572391 2011 01 22 Sat 05:37:22 ..c. /usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
4572391 2011 03 18 Fri 03:02:05 .a.. /usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
4572391 2011 04 15 Fri 19:23:00 m... /usr/local/lib/dsniff.services
4572392 2011 01 22 Sat 05:37:22 ..c. /etc/cron.daily/dnsquery
4572392 2011 03 18 Fri 03:02:05 .a.. /etc/cron.daily/dnsquery
4572392 2011 04 15 Fri 19:23:00 m... /etc/cron.daily/dnsquery</p>

The other files don't appear at the end of the time line because they had their time stamps correctly backdated via the touch command. So maybe we're not dealing with the world's least sophisticated attacker after all, maybe these three files that were dated in the future were a red herring. It's interesting to think about, but ultimately futile to try and understand the mind of the attacker.

There's at least one other noteworthy aspect of these inodes. I talked about it in my SECTor talk, so check out the recorded presentation when it becomes availalbe or stay tuned, I'll be blogging about it here soon.

Dave Hull is an incident responder, forensic investigator, reverser of malware, sometimes web application breaker and recovering code analysis guy. When he's not hunting on enterprise networks you can likely find him hanging out with his family or attempting to learn piano.

Share:
TwitterLinkedInFacebook
Copy url Url was copied to clipboard
Subscribe to SANS Newsletters
Receive curated news, vulnerabilities, & security awareness tips
United States
Canada
United Kingdom
Spain
Belgium
Denmark
Norway
Netherlands
Australia
India
Japan
Singapore
Afghanistan
Aland Islands
Albania
Algeria
American Samoa
Andorra
Angola
Anguilla
Antarctica
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Aruba
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bhutan
Bolivia
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba
Bosnia And Herzegovina
Botswana
Bouvet Island
Brazil
British Indian Ocean Territory
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Cayman Islands
Central African Republic
Chad
Chile
China
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Colombia
Comoros
Cook Islands
Costa Rica
Croatia (Local Name: Hrvatska)
Curacao
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
East Timor
East Timor
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Falkland Islands (Malvinas)
Faroe Islands
Fiji
Finland
France
French Guiana
French Polynesia
French Southern Territories
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Gibraltar
Greece
Greenland
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guam
Guatemala
Guernsey
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Heard And McDonald Islands
Honduras
Hong Kong
Hungary
Iceland
Indonesia
Iraq
Ireland
Isle of Man
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Jersey
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Korea, Republic Of
Kosovo
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Democratic Republic
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macau
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Marshall Islands
Martinique
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mayotte
Mexico
Micronesia, Federated States Of
Moldova, Republic Of
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Montserrat
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nauru
Nepal
Netherlands Antilles
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Niue
Norfolk Island
Northern Mariana Islands
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Palestine
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Pitcairn
Poland
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Qatar
Reunion
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saint Bartholemy
Saint Kitts And Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Martin
Saint Vincent And The Grenadines
Samoa
San Marino
Sao Tome And Principe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Sint Maarten
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
South Africa
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
South Sudan
Sri Lanka
St. Helena
St. Pierre And Miquelon
Suriname
Svalbard And Jan Mayen Islands
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Thailand
Togo
Tokelau
Tonga
Trinidad And Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Turks And Caicos Islands
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United States Minor Outlying Islands
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Vatican City
Venezuela
Vietnam
Virgin Islands (British)
Virgin Islands (U.S.)
Wallis And Futuna Islands
Western Sahara
Yemen
Yugoslavia
Zambia
Zimbabwe

By providing this information, you agree to the processing of your personal data by SANS as described in our Privacy Policy.

This site is protected by reCAPTCHA and the Google Privacy Policy and Terms of Service apply.

Tags:
  • Digital Forensics and Incident Response

Related Content

Blog
DFIR_-_DFIR_Origin_Stories_-_340x340_Thumb.jpg
Digital Forensics and Incident Response
March 20, 2023
DFIR Origin Stories - Kat Hedley
Digital Forensics and Incident Response (DFIR) called to Kat Hedley as soon as she first entered the workforce.
DFIR_ICON_(1).PNG
SANS DFIR
read more
Blog
Google.png
Digital Forensics and Incident Response, Cloud Security
March 13, 2023
Google Cloud Log Extraction
In this blog post, we review the methods through which we can extract logs from Google Cloud.
Megan_Roddie_370x370.png
Megan Roddie
read more
Blog
Untitled_design-43.png
Digital Forensics and Incident Response, Cybersecurity and IT Essentials, Industrial Control Systems Security, Purple Team, Open-Source Intelligence (OSINT), Penetration Testing and Red Teaming, Cyber Defense, Cloud Security, Security Management, Legal, and Audit
December 8, 2021
Good News: SANS Virtual Summits Will Remain FREE for the Community in 2022
They’re virtual. They’re global. They’re free.
370x370-person-placeholder.png
Emily Blades
read more
  • Register to Learn
  • Courses
  • Certifications
  • Degree Programs
  • Cyber Ranges
  • Job Tools
  • Security Policy Project
  • Posters & Cheat Sheets
  • White Papers
  • Focus Areas
  • Cyber Defense
  • Cloud Security
  • Cybersecurity Leadership
  • Digital Forensics
  • Industrial Control Systems
  • Offensive Operations
Subscribe to SANS Newsletters
Receive curated news, vulnerabilities, & security awareness tips
United States
Canada
United Kingdom
Spain
Belgium
Denmark
Norway
Netherlands
Australia
India
Japan
Singapore
Afghanistan
Aland Islands
Albania
Algeria
American Samoa
Andorra
Angola
Anguilla
Antarctica
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Aruba
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bhutan
Bolivia
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba
Bosnia And Herzegovina
Botswana
Bouvet Island
Brazil
British Indian Ocean Territory
Brunei Darussalam
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Cayman Islands
Central African Republic
Chad
Chile
China
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Colombia
Comoros
Cook Islands
Costa Rica
Croatia (Local Name: Hrvatska)
Curacao
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
East Timor
East Timor
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Falkland Islands (Malvinas)
Faroe Islands
Fiji
Finland
France
French Guiana
French Polynesia
French Southern Territories
Gabon
Gambia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Gibraltar
Greece
Greenland
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guam
Guatemala
Guernsey
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Heard And McDonald Islands
Honduras
Hong Kong
Hungary
Iceland
Indonesia
Iraq
Ireland
Isle of Man
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Jersey
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Korea, Republic Of
Kosovo
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Lao People's Democratic Republic
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macau
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Marshall Islands
Martinique
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mayotte
Mexico
Micronesia, Federated States Of
Moldova, Republic Of
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Montserrat
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar
Namibia
Nauru
Nepal
Netherlands Antilles
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Niue
Norfolk Island
Northern Mariana Islands
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Palestine
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Pitcairn
Poland
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Qatar
Reunion
Romania
Russian Federation
Rwanda
Saint Bartholemy
Saint Kitts And Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Martin
Saint Vincent And The Grenadines
Samoa
San Marino
Sao Tome And Principe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Sint Maarten
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
South Africa
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
South Sudan
Sri Lanka
St. Helena
St. Pierre And Miquelon
Suriname
Svalbard And Jan Mayen Islands
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Thailand
Togo
Tokelau
Tonga
Trinidad And Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Turks And Caicos Islands
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United States Minor Outlying Islands
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Vatican City
Venezuela
Vietnam
Virgin Islands (British)
Virgin Islands (U.S.)
Wallis And Futuna Islands
Western Sahara
Yemen
Yugoslavia
Zambia
Zimbabwe

By providing this information, you agree to the processing of your personal data by SANS as described in our Privacy Policy.

This site is protected by reCAPTCHA and the Google Privacy Policy and Terms of Service apply.
  • © 2023 SANS™ Institute
  • Privacy Policy
  • Contact
  • Careers
  • Twitter
  • Facebook
  • Youtube
  • LinkedIn